How Every Great Discovery Rests on the Past
"If I have seen further, it is by standing on the shoulders of Giants." - Isaac Newton, 1675
When we think of great scientific geniuses, we often imagine solitary figures conjuring revolutionary ideas from nothing—true originals whose insights emerged from pure, unaided intellect. But this romantic vision couldn't be further from the truth. In 1675, Isaac Newton, perhaps the greatest scientific mind in history, penned a letter to his rival Robert Hooke containing a phrase that would echo through the centuries: "If I have seen further, it is by standing on the shoulders of Giants."1 4
Newton's famous quote was written in a letter to fellow scientist Robert Hooke, who some historians believe Newton may have been subtly insulting with the reference to "giants."
Far from claiming singular genius, Newton was acknowledging a fundamental truth about knowledge and discovery: every great leap forward depends on the work of those who came before. This powerful metaphor captures the very essence of scientific progress, technological innovation, and cultural advancement. It reminds us that we're all part of a grand collaborative project that spans generations, each building upon the foundations laid by predecessors to reach new heights.
In this article, we'll explore the fascinating history behind this enduring concept, examine the scientific evidence for how knowledge actually accumulates, and discover how today's researchers continue to stand on the shoulders of giants—sometimes without even knowing it.
While Newton popularized the phrase, its roots stretch back much further—all the way to the 12th century. The earliest documented appearance comes from 1123 in William of Conches's Glosses on Priscian's Institutiones grammaticae, where he wrote: "Hence we are like a dwarf perched on the shoulders of a giant. The former sees further than the giant, not because of his own stature, but because of the stature of his bearer."1
The powerful imagery of this concept found striking visual expression in the stained glass of Chartres Cathedral. The tall windows under the rose window show the four major prophets of the Hebrew Bible as gigantic figures, with the four New Testament evangelists sitting on their shoulders.1
William of Conches first records the metaphor in his Glosses on Priscian's Institutiones grammaticae.1
John of Salisbury quotes Bernard of Chartres using the dwarf-on-giant metaphor to describe knowledge accumulation.1
Jewish tosaphist Isaiah di Trani records a similar parable about dwarfs and giants he'd heard from philosophers.1
Isaac Newton writes his famous letter to Robert Hooke, cementing the phrase in scientific lexicon.1
"Bernard of Chartres used to compare us to dwarfs perched on the shoulders of giants. He pointed out that we see more and farther than our predecessors, not because we have keener vision or greater height, but because we are lifted up and borne aloft on their gigantic stature."1
Scientific progress is driven by elite researchers—the "giants"—whose foundational work enables subsequent breakthroughs.6
Top-level research depends on a broad base of medium-caliber researchers—comparable to an iceberg, where the visible tip depends on the massive submerged structure.6
Scientific advancement is largely random—the result of chance processes or fortune.6
In 2010, researchers decided to empirically test these competing hypotheses using bibliometric analysis—the statistical study of publication and citation patterns.6 Their methodology was elegant in its simplicity:
Gathered all articles published in 2003 across four major fields
Collected all references cited in these papers
Categorized papers by citation impact percentiles
Analyzed citation patterns between different impact levels
The findings were clear: across all scientific fields, highly-cited work more frequently cites previously highly-cited papers than medium-cited work cites highly-cited work.6 This pattern strongly supports the Newton hypothesis—scientific progress does indeed appear to involve "standing on the shoulders of giants," with elite researchers building primarily on the work of previous elite researchers.
| Field of Science | Total Papers Analyzed | Total References Analyzed | Support for Newton Hypothesis |
|---|---|---|---|
| Physical Sciences | 366,974 | 3,317,683 | Strong |
| Life Sciences | 248,812 | 3,809,845 | Strong |
| Health Sciences | 210,758 | 2,373,799 | Strong |
| Social Sciences | 41,095 | 278,146 | Moderate |
In Newton's time, the number of "giants" one might cite was relatively small. Today, however, the exponential growth of scientific publishing presents a formidable challenge. As one researcher notes, "Instead of there just being a few big names dominating each field, knowledge is pushed forward bit-by-bit through the efforts of many individual scholars."5 Some argue that a new metaphor—"crowd surfing"—might better represent how modern researchers build upon the work of many contributors rather than just a few towering figures.5
Zotero, Mendeley, EndNote - Critical for managing numerous references efficiently
Google Scholar, Scopus, Web of Science - Google Scholar's motto is literally "Stand on the shoulders of giants"1
Various bibliometric platforms - Helps distinguish "giants" from less impactful work
ResearchGate, Academia.edu - Facilitates finding and learning from contemporary "giants"
The field of quantum computing provides a striking modern example of standing on giants' shoulders. As quantum researcher Wolfgang Lechner notes, "At ParityQC, we are proud to be carrying this scientific heritage into a new era of quantum computing... with deep connections to the research community."9 Their work builds directly on the foundational research of Nobel laureate Anton Zeilinger and quantum pioneer Peter Zoller.9
Contrary to the myth of the lone genius, most innovation represents creative recombination of existing ideas. As filmmaker Jim Jarmusch advised: "Nothing is original. Steal from anywhere that resonates with inspiration or fuels your imagination... Always remember what Jean-Luc Godard said: 'It's not where you take things from—it's where you take them to.'"8
The enduring power of Newton's metaphor lies in its humble acknowledgment that knowledge advances collectively. Even our greatest geniuses see further only because they build upon the accumulated wisdom of those who preceded them. As John of Salisbury reflected back in 1159, "We see more and farther than our predecessors, not because we have keener vision or greater height, but because we are lifted up and borne aloft on their gigantic stature."1
While we may never become Newtons or Shakespeares ourselves, we can take comfort in knowing that our own contributions, however modest, may become part of the foundation upon which future generations will stand to see further than we can possibly imagine.
The next time you encounter a revolutionary new technology or a groundbreaking scientific discovery, look closer—you'll likely find it's standing on the shoulders of giants, in an unbroken chain of collective human achievement stretching back centuries. And when you conduct your own research or develop your own ideas, remember that there's no shame in building on what came before—this is how all genuine progress happens.